Wednesday, January 18, 2006

A paper presented in Denmark by a Nepali scholar:

Poverty Politics in a Small, landlocked, transitional and least Developed country: A case of Nepal - I

- Dr.Ram Kumar Dahal, T.U

(A paper presented in Local Politics, Poverty and Decentralization (LPPD) Workshop in Bornholm, Denmark, November 27-30,2005 organized by Danish Institute of International Studies(DIIS). This researcher is extremely grateful to DIIS in general and it’s the executive director Dr. Neil Webster in particular for giving permission to this researcher to publish it in the form of article).

Poverty into-day's globalized context is regarded as multidimensional issue and thus, as most people think, is not only an economic issue. It is a serious politico- economic, socio-cultural and psychological issue which have to be studied, if it is to be understood appropriately correctly in the context of broader geographical, demographic, ecological, socio-cultural, religious and politico-economic context of the nation. In a country like Nepal where the society is based on strictly hierarchical norms and the age-old basis of caste system traditional socio-cultural values norms and beliefs poverty has to be studied in the light of these multidimensional factors. This discussion paper is divided into five parts. The first part deals with the concept and context of poverty in general, the second part deals with the poverty in Nepalese context, focusing on the key determining/conditioning factors causes and characteristics of poverty in Nepal. The third part focuses on the various attempts made by HMG/N to reduce/alleviate poverty in Nepal and the fourth one outlines the major issues, problems and challenges in the poverty reduction schemes of Nepal. The fifth one attempts to recommend some remedial measures in reducing poverty in Nepalese particular context, followed by short conclusion and references.

I

Poverty: Concept and context

The global waves in to-day's 21st century including globalization, privatization, liberalization, democratization, marketization and a number of factors including multinational corporations (MNCs) and international nongovernmental organizations (INGOs), Brettonwoods institutions have forced the political economists, multinational corporations to redefine poverty in the changed international, regional and national context. The changing pattern of global/ international political, economic and socio cultural relations have also led to redefine poverty in practical sense. There is a growing trend among the group of economists to redefine poverty strictly in economic sense. The development practitioners and experts political economists view poverty and development as multidimensional issues and have to studied in the context of a number of factors including geographic, demographic, socio cultural, political and environmental context.

The World Bank Report (2000-2001) defines poverty in much more comprehensive manner and considers it as "more than income or human development. It is also vulnerability and a lack of voice, power and representation." and accordingly the powerless, voice less, marginalized underprivileged, underrepresented and minorities become the part or main factors of poverty. The Asian Development Bank (ADB) (1991) considers "poverty "as a matter deprivation" The World Development Report (1990) has tried to differentiate between poverty and inequality. Poverty, according to the World Bank (1990) is primarily" concerned with the absolute standard of living of a part of society (of the poor) "Inequality, according to the Bank, "refers to the relative living standard across the whole society." As the poverty is classified by some political economists into absolute and relative poverty, it has also to be defined and studied according to its real nature, particularly when poverty has to be analyzed in Nepal's particular case. The absolute poor, according to political economists are those who are not in a position to fulfill even their basis needs, including what the Nepalese prefer to call, Gaas, Baas, Kapas (fooding, lodging and clothing). Relative poverty is concerned with how the large section of the population control small share of economy and a small section of people control large share of economy." Meier and Rauch (2001) in this connection view.

"A consumption based poverty line can be thought of as comprising two elements: the expenditure necessary to buy a minimum standard of nutrition and other basic necessities and a further amount that varies from country to country, reflecting the cost of participating in the everyday life of society. The first part is relatively straight forward. The cost of minimum adequate calorie intakes and other necessities can be calculated by looking at the prices of the foods that make up the diets of the poor. The second part is far more subjective in some countries indoor pumping is a luxury but in others it is a "necessity". The perception of poverty has evolved historically and varies tremendously from culture to culture. Criteria for distinguishing poor from non poor tend to reflect specific national priorities and normative concept of welfare and rights. In general, as countries become wealthier, their perception of the acceptable minimum level of consumption -the poverty line-changes.. Rather than settle for a single number, this employs two: $ 275 and $ 370 per person a year. (The amounts are in constant 1985 prices.) This range was chosen to span poverty lines estimated in recent studies for a number of countries with low average incomes, Bangladesh, Egypt, India, Indonesia, Kenya, Morocco and Tanzania. The lower limit of the range coincides with a poverty line commonly used for India." Context of both political and economic power and influence poverty has to be practically studied in the reference of views of the poor themselves. The poor people in developing poor countries define poverty in their own but practical way. A poor in Kenya defined poverty in these words: Don't ask me what poverty is because you have met it outside my house. Look at the house and count the number of holes. Look at the utensils and the clothes I am wearing. Look at everything and write what you see. What you see is poverty. "Defining poverty in the poor in India stated "At first I was afraid of everyone and everything: My husband, the village Sarpanch and the police. Today I fear no one. I have my own bank account, I am the leader of my village's savings group." A poor woman in Egypt said, "We face a calamity when my husband falls ill. Our life comes to a halt until he recovers and goes back to work." Relating poverty strictly with dependence, humiliation and exploitation, a poor woman in Latvia explained poverty in these words." Poverty is humiliation, the sense of being dependent on them, and of being forced to accept rudeness, insults, and indifference when we seek help).(Quoted from Sharma 2061 : 650-653) Michael P. Todaro (1997) wants to view inequalities in much more comprehensive sense. Economic inequality is simply a part of that. Poverty, according to John Black (2005:361-362) is “inability to afford an adequate standard of consumption”. Poverty according to sociologists, is" related with deprivation" and is, Thus, related with wider form of disadvantage Poverty according to sociologists, is" related with deprivation and powerlessness" and is, thus, related with wider form of disadvantage." .Sociologists like Gordon Marshall (2005:516-518) considers poverty as a” state in which resources, usually material but sometimes cultural are lacking .It is common to distinguish between absolute and relative definitions of poverty. William P. Scott (1999), 307) relates poverty with" low standard of living that lasts long enough to undermine the health, morale, and self-respect of an individual or group of individuals. The term is relative to the general standard of living in the society, the distribution of wealth, the status system, and social expectations. ”The Nobel Laureate Amartya Sen (1992:102-116) has made various attempts to relate poverty with a number of factors including inequality, inadequacy of incomes, incompleteness, class, gender, interregional contrasts. The measurement of poverty, according to Amartya Sen (1992:102), "can be seen as consisting of two distinct though inter-related exercises, Viz. (1) identification of the poor and 2) aggregations of the statistics regarding the identified poor to derive an overall index of poverty." Poverty, according to Sen (1992:107-109) Thus has its own unique nature and characteristics.

While analyzing poverty, some policy issues regarding development inequality of income and wealth, health and education facilities, employment opportunities and population factors have also to be analyzed very critically. In the words of Jeremek Jerme "It is easy enough to say that poverty is no crime. No, if it were, men would not be ashamed of it. It is blunder through, and is punished as such, A poor man is despised the whole world ever. As poverty is highly associated with deprivation it can be regarded as the worst form of disadvantage in the society. In the words of Rowntree "Primary poverty is earnings insufficient to obtain the minimum necessities for the maintenance of merely physical efficiency."

As the complete alleviation of poverty however, into-day's globalized context is not possible, it would be better and practical to call gradual poverty reduction The World Bank since 1990 has also preferred to use the term poverty reduction whose assessment has become helpful in undertaking measures in reducing poverty. In the word of the World Bank," the findings of poverty assessments have been, helpful in designing assistance strategies that support government efforts to promote efficient growth, expand access to social services and strengthen safety nets."

II

Poverty in Nepalese Context

While dealing with poverty in Nepalese context it would be appropriate to outline some of key determinants/conditioning factors and causes and characteristics of poverty in Nepal. In this context, while analyzing poverty politics in Nepal, it would be appropriate to have a bird's eye view on those factors (e.g. permanent and others) that have conditioned or determined or caused poverty in Nepal. As poverty and development are multidimensional issues, they could be studied on the background of a number of factors including geographic, ecological, demographic, socio cultural, economic, psychological, and educational and government policies.

Locked by India on three sides, Nepal is one of the landlocked country of the world and has nearly 1800 km open border with India and nearly 1414 km border with People’s Republic of China. least developed and with an area of 147,181 sq km, it is a small country A careful study of Nepalese society and its ecology makes it amply clear that Nepal's poverty has certain specific characteristics world.. Poverty in Nepal, has to studied historical, political, economic and socio cultural geographical dimensions. It's causes of poverty in Nepal include a number of factors including geographic, socio cultural, psychological, educational, factors, (Nepal's difficult rugged topography population explosion, government failure to conduct development activities in remote villages no special development programs for the rural poor; urban centered development pattern ineffective implementation of poverty alleviation measures; The growing percentage of unemployed and under/disguised employment; Nepal's difficult topography/rugged geography lack of political commitment on the part of the political leaders/ruling elites. The population growth (2.25%) and the government's incapability to feed the extra mouths have added poverty in Nepal. The population growth and government failure/inability to provide employment opportunities to them, the traditional and backward agriculture, inadequate rural industrialization, unequal distribution of land, socio-cultural constraints lack of political commitment on the part of political leaders, lack of political culture and adequate political education and proper socialization pattern have also been closely associated with poverty. Nepal has immense potentialities, geo-diversity (ranging from world's highest peak, the Mt. Everest to the low lands of Terai) and human and natural resources.

While studying poverty its either historic dimension is no less important. The Kingdom of Nepal has a long history and has seen many politic economic ups and downs. Nepal was never colonized by western world when almost the whole world was colonial zed by the British or the French before till The Second World War.

Due to these reasons, Nepal is listed as one of the LDCs of the world. Its situation is becoming more and more Vulnerable and poorer day by day.

When the whole world was involved in economic development activities and overall economic transformation (e.g. production, rural industrialization even in the developing countries, in the post colonial phase, the Nepalese rulers before 1950, did not introduce such reform Even though the national and international environment was conductive for development and industrialization, the Rana rulers of Nepal (1846-1950) due to their selfish motives, tried to keep the country and its population in complete darkness so that they may continue in power for longer duration. During the period of first multi party democratic experiment (1951-1960), except during the period of first elected government, May 27, 1959, Dec. 15, 1960, the political and ruling elites terribly undermined the all round development of the nation, including poverty alleviation. Though the non party panchayat polity (1961-1989) at least started the beginning of economic development and made some efforts to reduce poverty but tried to strengthen the political system.

In this context, it would be appropriate to analyze the geographical dimension of Nepalese poverty. Geographically speaking, the Himalayan and Hill people are more poor. As the production is very low in these areas, the growth of horticulture, sericulture, herbal medicines tourist attraction and the programs suited to their native environment would be beneficial to them for their poverty reduction. The apples grown in Jumla, if brought to Kathmandu and other urban centers can generate good income to the people in the region. As Nepal failed to mobilize and utilize its existing resources, the country is facing a grave food deficit more in post 1990 days. The political dimension of Nepalese poverty has to be properly understood in this context. Politically speaking the Ranas monopolized the country's whole economic resources and considered them as their family personal property. They distributed the economic resources to their relatives and yes-men in different forms (e.g. tax free birta land) creating a big economic disparities between the haves and have-nots. Most important to this, the Rana Rulers considered economic development and industrialization as their biggest enemies and wanted to the keep the people in complete isolation from the rest of the world. In post 1950 period, the first multiparty parliament experiment (1951-60), due to political instability and frequent changes in government could not encourage development activities including poverty reduction. The non party pachayat polity (1961-2002) intended to encourage economic development and poverty reduction concentrating on the consolidation of non party panchayat polity. As poverty is also a sociological and psychological issue, its sociological and psychological dimension is also no less important in this context. Psychologically, a person who does not get respect, self esteem in society can not thinking that poverty has been practically reduced. The deeply rooted social practices including caste system e.g. (dalits, Adibasi Janajaties) are stronger which create hurdles in reducing poverty in the society. The gap between the rich and the poor has to be bridged if poverty has to be practically reduced. It may take time but reforms have to be promoted.

III

Poverty Reduction Efforts in Nepal

Nepal in pre 1990 (during Panchayat period) and post 1990 period made a number of attempts in the field of poverty reduction. In post 1950 period a number of efforts were made to alleviate poverty in Nepal. Due to political instability, the period of first experiment with western model multiparty system (1951-1960) (except the period of Nepal's first elected government: May 27, 1959-Dec.16, 1960) did not launch any important measures of poverty alleviation due to a number of reasons including the lack of proper and scientific identification of the poor and poverty in real sense. When Nepal started experimenting with periodic plans in 1956, a number of programs, policies and strategies were adopted, declared and launched to address the problems of the rural poor directly or indirectly, at micro or macro level. The First Five Year Plan (1956-1960) was declared during the period of multiparty experiment. The second three year plan (1962-1965) the Third Five Year Plan (1965-1970) and Fourth Five Year Plan (1970-1975) were all declared by the non party Panchayat regime (1961-1989) which directly or indirectly could not effectively address the problems of the rural poor and intended to reduce different forms of poverty in the Himalayan and mountainous kingdom of Nepal. The last two plans the Sixth Five Year Plan (1980-1985) and the Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-1990) declared and implemented by the non party Panchayati planners at least theoretically if not practically, had the target of poverty alleviation in Nepal.

The Sixth Five Year Plan (1980-1985) included poverty alleviation Program relating to Basic needs. The Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-1990) had further stressed the need to reduce poverty and stressed the need to improve the basic needs of the people, particularly of the rural poor. The non party Panchayati regime based on the declared basic principles of partylessness, dynamic and direct leadership of the crown, class coordination and decentralization and through different periodic plans declared in between 1961-1989 made some attempts to alleviate poverty in Nepal. As the political system was highly centralized, non competitive and personality-centered, developmental and poverty reduction issues remained limited. As the whole national activities (including periodic planning and economic programs, policies and strategies) were centered and intended to consolidate the non party regime and weaken the supporters of multi party democracy, poverty reduction efforts practically found no priority in Nepalese economy.

The introduction and restoration of pluralistic, competitive and open polity in 1990, after the anti Panchayat uprising in the same year, marked a historic beginning in the field of planning, development and poverty alleviation schemes. The country was constitutionally exposed to western liberal values of open society, committed to guarantee basic human rights to every citizen, consolidate adult franchise, parliamentary and multi party system of government, constitutional monarchy, establish an independent and competent system of Justice with a view to transforming the concept of rule of law into a living reality (HMG, 1992) The 1990 constitution also vested the supreme authority of the state in the hands of the sovereign people (Articles) (formerly during the Panchayat period under the 1962 constitution, the sovereignty was vested in His Majesty the king) and accepted the concept of civilian control of army. In post 1990 days, periodic elections were held and various party governments were formed which declared some more periodic plans and declared several programs, policies and strategies to alleviate poverty in real sense. The concept of people-centered development and planning was also practically accepted and some attempts were made accordingly, which directly or indirectly or at micro or macro level intended to address the problems of the rural poor. The Eighth Five Year Plan (1992-1997) for the first time included special policies and programs to alleviate poverty. The Koirala government formed after the first multi party parliamentary elections in (1992 (in post 1990 days), stressed this measures. The Ninth Five Year Plan (2002-2007) has adopted some special measures, policies, programs and strategies to reduce poverty in rural areas. The Tenth Plan (2002-2007) has also stressed the alleviation of poverty in Nepal and has specifically mentioned some solid measures of poverty reduction.

A number of attempts, however, were made in post 1990 Nepal to alleviate/reduce poverty of the rural poor by encouraging rural community based programs including Small Farmers' Development. Program (SFDP), Production Credit for Rural Women (PCRW), Gramin Vikas Bank (Rural Development Bank) Farmers Managed Community Irrigation System (FMCIS) and Community Forestry programs Moreover, a number of programs, policies and schemes strategies were also declared in the last nine plans and in every yearly budget. Some positive developments, in post 1990 period have undoubtedly taken place in the field of poverty reduction. A number of HMG ministries are also directly or indirectly related with poverty reduction schemes in Nepal. The Ministry of Women, Children and Social Welfare (MOWCSW), since last few years, have been playing very crucial role in this direction by conducting special schemes for the target/focus groups in income generation schemes so that their livelihood may be comfortable. The ministry is also providing income generation-based vocational and professional training and employment oriented skill to develop skilled manpower to women, children and disabled persons. Since decades, the ministry has been conducting special programs for women to facilitate the income generation schemes and provide such skill and training. The ministry has women development section under which there are women development officers in 75 districts which have been effectively working in the formation of women groups having access in nearly 1090 VDCs out of the total 3915 forming nearly 5,000 women groups.

The seed money, provided to women groups freely by government, has been very useful to them in income generation schemes. It became more effective, when the government supervised and monitored their activities, provided them different skills and income and employment oriented professional and vocational training within the country (at the centre) and abroad. The women have been used in those VDCs/Districts as social mobilizers, leaders, motivators, educators and as socializing agents in different income generation schemes. But due to the lack of political Commitment on the part of the political and power elites these programs have not been effectively implemented into practice. All these income generated centered schemes have resulted to some extent their economic and social empowerment and most of them have even sent their children to schools (even in English medium private boarding schools). The Asian development Bank (ADB), in order to encourage this program, added some more components in it including women awareness, health, education, gender equality and equity, women rights. Under this program, the women have become aware of their human rights, family rights, their right to work (to get from state community etc) and their reproductive health/right. This holistic and integrated approach has proved multi dimensional in nature and contributed a lot in development including income generation and social and economic empowerment.

The Ministry of Industries, Commerce and Supply has (MOICS) also been playing significant role in reducing rural poverty by encouraging the process of establishing cottage and small scale industries in rural areas. One of the wing in the ministry, (Cottage Industry Development, Committee (Formed under Committee Act) has been involved in providing short term training within the country and abroad. The technical, vocational and employment oriented training and skill provided to unemployed women expected three things from them : (1) They can make/prepare the things of daily use at home 2) do that for commercial purposes and 3) finally contributing to poverty reduction in rural areas. The ministry has also given special privileges, facilities including tax exemption for certain period of time if they establish agro-based small and cottage industries using existing local raw materials and resources. In pre 1996 days, (before the declaration of the people's war by the Maoists) these programs have been very effective in some of the VDCs bringing substantial change in the life style of the rural poor, especially of the women groups.

The Ministry of Finance (MOF) and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA) have also played significant role in this direction by making agreements with foreign countries and international donor community. The MOF is particularly important in this direction because all the banks (including commercial ones) and financial institutions working in different sectors operate under it and can monitor, supervise and control their activities. HMG has also created Poverty Alleviation Fund, (PAF) to give relief to the rural poor and has contributed a lot in this direction. HMG/N has also started the Identification of the poor and distribution of certificates to them so that the real poor could be helped. During 2059/60 BS FY, HMG conducted such programs in seven districts- Baitadi, Dadeldhura, Myagdi, Humla, Rukum and Terahthum to provide facilities to the poor people which have become proved fruitful in most cases. A number of programs, policies and strategies declared by the HMG in different periods had also played significant role, (e.g. Small Farmer's Development. Program conducted by Agricultural Development Bank.)

Moreover, the management and monitoring of poverty, National Development. Voluntary Service (NDVS), women's awareness and Income generation measures micro sector credit, private sector credit, cottage and small Industries project (CASID), Production Credit for Rural Women, Rural self Reliance Fund (RSRF), Micro credit Project for women and a number of programs and projects have in one way or the other contributed to the real reduction of rural poverty.

The commercial banks (including Rastriya Banijya Bank: RBB, Agriculture Development Bank) and government corporations (e.g. Agricultural Input (corporation) have also been imparting micro credit to the rural poor in a number of ways. The commercial banks have been providing credit small farmers in conducting agricultural and commercial activities, establishing small scale industries and other income generation schemes. The Agriculture Development Bank has schemes to support the rural poor in a number of ways. Small Farmers Development Program, conducted by the Bank since last few years, has become very instrumental in this direction. The Gramin Vikas Bank (Rural development Banks) has played significant role in providing credit to rural poor to raise their income level and consequently alleviate/reduce poverty in general. Besides these micro credit schemes for poverty reduction, the long term projects, particularly the bigger ones, (e.g. the upper Gandaki and upper Marsyangdi) have also conducted/contributed to poverty reduction in Nepal. These programs are generally conducted to control the emotional activities of the local people against the on-going projects, and have also developed infrastructures including roads, plantation, suspension bridges, control land erosion, construction of schools, hospitals, day care centers for the child of the workers (in case of Kulekhani hydro electric projects) conduct education (adult and wore education) that in one way or the other have contributed to reduce poverty gradually in the area. Some of the local people were also employed for such projects. These activities have or contributed to the economic empowerment of the local people. These projects have kept in mind how the local people can stand economically and contribute to income generation.

The Poverty reduction schemes in Nepal remained highly affected in post 1996 days when the Maoist started people's war in the country. HMG/N, the Red cross, the local bodies, the CDO and the INGOs in post 1996 days have also conducted the some rescue and rehabilitation schemes for the Maoist affected people and financially supported them (by providing five thousands NRs. for each in individual risk) and supporting some income generation schemes (including buffalo keeping, establishing small shops) They also conducted activities relating to food and shelter (particularly in Mid western and Far western region in Terai) in the conflict affected areas.

The ministry of women, children and social welfare has also conducted community based rehabilitation programs for the disabled and elderly persons/senior citizens. The ministry has supported their a number of education and health programs It has also provided assistive devices, crutches, orthopedic limbs, white stick to the blind, training, awareness, equality rights, inclusion, and supporting their income generation schemes. Consequently many of them have been successful to stand on their own feet financially. HMG/N has also provided loan from 20 to 40 thousands to the trained manpower through CTEVT. The Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives has also encouraged promoting the income generation schemes of the poor through cooperatives in the rural areas. The cooperatives and the cooperative Banks have also promoted income generation schemes by providing loans to the poor. The Dairy Development Corporation (DDC) has also made attempts to poverty reduction schemes by providing the poor peasants the loan to purchase the buffaloes, cows in the initial phase and collect and purchase their produced milk later by the corporation itself. This, to some extent, has encouraged income generation schemes reducing their poverty in the long run in the rural areas. The Ministry of Agriculture and cooperatives has rendered service to the rural poor in the promotion of traditional agriculture in a number of ways. The Junior Technicians (JTs) and Junior Technical Assistants (JTAs) have provided service to poor peasants by providing free technical service to the poor peasants in the areas/fields of improved seeds, livestock and agro-product, cash corps, vegetable fruits in short the Ministry has played supportive role in agricultural production and finally improve the economic status of the rural poor. The Livestock Department under the ministry has also encouraged animal husbandry and taming of animals generating incomes through selling milk. The development of vegetation under the ministry has also encouraged the fruits, herbal medicine and sericulture botanical garden.

IV

Poverty alleviation in Nepal: Issues, Problems and challenges

Poverty reduction is a serious challenge in Nepalese context. As poverty is a global phenomenon (particularly in the developing countries) its complete alleviation depends on global attempts/measures undertaken by global actors collectively. Political economists, planners, development practitioners and experts have analyzed a number of reasons about how poverty alleviation became a difficult Job in Nepal and what the various issues, problems and challenges were in this regard and why poverty alleviation measures in the past ended in total failure. Nepal's failure to reduce/minimize poverty in the past is caused due to a number of factors. Nepal's difficult geographic situation (e.g. the high Himalayas, mountains and turbulent rivers flowing from north to south, difficult mountain and Mahabharata ranges and Churia hills stretching from east to west) has served as severe challenges to measures of economic development and poverty alleviation. The geographic complexities have created a gap between the inaccessible remote rural areas and facilitated urban centers. Rural poverty, particularly in the remote areas, is severe in Nepal which has to be addressed with special programs. Though Nepal in pre 1990 and post 1990 periods has undertaken a number of economic reform measures including agricultural transformation/modernization, land reform measures, resettlement/rehabilitation programs, rural industrialization (e.g. development of small scale and cottage industries), extension of rural market mechanisms, cooperative movements, these reform measures practically have proved less fruitful in the reduction of poverty. Unfortunately, the economic development and modernization activities so far conducted in Nepal could not effectively address the grievances of the real poor; whatever activities were planned and proposed at government level in different plan period and yearly budgets were either monopolized by the so call rich and tatha batha in their names or could not reach to the target groups. The land reform measures so far conducted the agricultural transformation schemes, the resettlement programs, the cooperative measures, the process of rural industrialization (or development of cottage and small scale industries) and the development of rural market mechanisms practically did not improve the lot of rural poor and improve their life living style. Moreover, the rural finance schemes, priority sector credit, production credit for rural women, rural self reliance fund, micro credit project for rural women and a number of measures declared so far by the government could not play significant in improving the status of the real rural poor.

According to Dr. Henning Karcher, (Telegraph weekly, January 19, 2000:37), (The former chief of the UNDP in Nepal, "the top 10 percent of Nepali population consumes more than b0ttom 50% taken together." This economic inequality between the top rich and the bottom poor has to be reduced if poverty has to be practically reduced in Nepal. In post 1950 period, Nepal completed nine development plans and a number of schemes and programs were launched under yearly budgets but poverty in Nepal has not been reduced practically. The living standard of the rural poor has been deteriorating every year. It is interesting to note here that, though Nepal experimented with periodic planning since 1956, why these plans and yearly budgets in fact did not contribute to the reduction of poverty in Nepal? Why has poverty instead of decreasing every year? What was the wrong with government policies? Programs increased? One of the major reasons for this is the high misuse of development fund by the corrupt politicians and high level bureaucrats. Thus the rampant political and administrative corruption has become one of the major hurdles for the improvement of the lot of the rural poor. In spite of this rampant corruption no massive anti corruption, measures (except few in post 2002 period to some extent) were taken against the corrupt political and bureaucrats virtually encouraging them to become more and corrupt and less responsible to the people in future. The economic reform measures declared in post 1990 period (including globalization, privatization and liberalization) intended to reducing poverty has widened the gap between the rich and the poor in a number of ways. These reforms extinguished more than 20,000 agro based small scale and cottage industries throughout the kingdom making a large number of people jobless and income less. The Nepalese political leaders, administrators and planners have almost failed to address the poverty issues separately in the Himalayan, Hill and Terai (including Inner) Terai regions, according to their real nature, content, need, priority and preference. These regions need different treatment to reduce rural poverty which the planners have to realize and act/form policies/programs accordingly. Out of the various development practices (e.g. stated-led, market-led, I/NGO-led and community-led development practices) adopted in Nepal to improve the lot of the rural poor, the community led development practice has become most successful even in the remote areas. The community practices (including Dhikur, (Guthi, Rodi (of Gurung) Bheja (of Magar community) Parma Bhajaita) have helped/provided services to the rural poor in various forms and content though people's participation But practically speaking, participatory democracy and development in Nepal have become, in most cases, the parts of electoral politics and a rhetoric (than reality).

Recommendations to reduce poverty

The reduction of poverty is a most complex task in Nepal due to a number of reasons. But it can be reduced gradually if practical and adequate measures can be adopted. In this connection, it would practical here to point out the reasons of failure of such programs in the past and recommend practical measures to gradual poverty reduction schemes. In Nepal's particular case, where the rural people are extremely poor, poverty can be reduced by encouraging and promoting rural tourism so that income generation capacity of the rural can be increased poor. For this, eco-tourism, cultural, religious, historical and agro tourism could be developed and tourism in general ca be regarded as socio-economic force. As Nepal is a land for all seasons for tourism, planning and coordination for tourism and the development of factors related with it (e.g. administration of tourism, transport, accommodation, national park and wild life reserves to attract tourists) Become important prerequisites in this direction. The promotion of rural tourism by attracting both foreign and national tourists in a hill and Himalayan country like Nepal can become one of the best means of earning foreign currency and livelihood. The Sirubari of Syanga district, Shree Antu in Ilam district; Chaurikharka, Namche and khumjung in Solukhumbu district have attracted tourist successfully contributing much to rural poverty reduction. Influenced by their success stories in the field of tourism, HMG/N had advocated the concept of developing model tourist villages in all the 14 Zones and has appropriated certain government amount for such purpose but due to some practical programs and policies, the amount also was lapsed in the fiscal year period and could contribute nothing in this direction. For the development and promotion of rural tourism (that can contribute for the reduction of poverty in Nepal) the Nepal Tourism Board (NTB) can play significant role in preparing of detail record of tourist spots, heritage and places of such importance (identification of such centers in each VDC, places of historical, religious and cultural importance etc.) in the district and the adoption of possible practical programs for their development in the district and in the VDCs. Such work can be done with the collaboration of a number of institutions and government offices including NTB, itself, DDCs, VDCs, Municipalities, ADDN, MuAN, NAVIN and leading local/NGOs that have been playing crucial role in poverty alleviation sector. In this connection, it would be appropriate to categorize such places of religions, historic and tourist importance and take appropriate policies and programs accordingly. (Lama, 2062 : 27-29) Tourists centers for trekking and mountaineering including Kanchanjunga, Sagarmatha (khumbu region) and Annapurna ranges may be developed in a special manner so as to attract foreign tourists and earn foreign currency. The other things related with rural tourism in Nepal and the important means of attracting foreign tourists (e.g. contributing to reduce poverty gradually) is the development of rafting, mountaineering, Trekking business in the tourist areas.

Modernization of backward agriculture in rural Nepal may be other agro based reforms that can contribute significantly for the gradual reduction of Nepal. For the modernization of traditional agriculture, a number of practical policies, programs and measures including the use of scientific inputs, tools, improved seeds and appropriate means of fertilizers, extension of rural credits to the rural poor extension of market mechanisms for the rural agricultural products can be undertaken and implemented. The infrastructures earlier built have also not been properly used and have failed provide service to the rural poor due to many reasons.

The centre for the selling of agro products in Dang (ksrishi utpadan Bikri Bhandar) (to cite some examples) has turned in dust bin garbage center and the wastage of the government expenditure in constructing the building. The unequal distribution of land and resources in Nepal has to be discouraged by the promulgation of appropriate land reform and land distribution measures attempting to bridge the widening gap between the rich and the poor (in respect to income, ownership, distribution to resources etc.) In this direction, the Nepalese welfare state can play significant role in enacting appropriate parliamentary laws and effectively/honestly implementing them into practice. Thus, the even distribution of wealth, assets and resources between the rich and the poor can be an influential measure to gradually reduce poverty in Nepal.

In this context, the providing employment opportunities to the unemployed citizens within the country would also contribute to reduce poverty. It would contribute to generate income to those who were formerly jobless or having no monthly/regular earning. The government has to undertake some practical programs and policies in this direction particularly for the welfare and wellbeing of the marginalized groups (e.g. voiceless, powerless underprivileged groups including women, Dalits, untouchables Adibasi Janajaties (indigenous nationalities). The gradual reduction of poverty is also related with the population control measures. The present population rate percentage (2.25%) is a burden to the nation which increases poverty in the country. The close relationship among public, private and government sectors may be influential measure to gradually reduce poverty in a country like Nepal. According the World Bank, UNDP and other development agencies, if development has to be encouraged, these three sectors should go side by side. It would also contribute to the gradual reduction of poverty in Nepal.

The balanced economic growth among various ecological zones (e.g. Bhot, Pahad and Mahesh ) and geographical regions e.g. Eastern, central, western, mid western and far western regions) may contribute to the gradual reduction of poverty in Nepal. The growth of Maoist activities at the beginning in the western Himalayan districts, particularly in the remote Karnali and Rapti Zones and later their expansion and extension in the Himalayan and Hill districts were due to a number of reasons including the second rate behavior shown by the central government to those areas and neglect the grievances and problems of the people living there. For a small, hill and mountainous country like Nepal where the inaccessible and remote areas suffer a number of issues problems and challenges relating to poverty, (e.g. lack of irrigation, drinking water and basic health facilities, schools, transportation and communication networks practical and effective integrated rural development programs/schemes and policies would better address in an integrated manner. In this context, The Nepalese welfare state has to take special care and promote the interests of the marginalized, voiceless, powerless and underprivileged groups (e.g. women, Dalits, Adibasi Janajaties) and undertake special programs for the welfare of the poor rural peasants by providing credit and other facilities to them at confessional rates,

It is important and interesting to note that in spite of the increasing technical cooperation and foreign development aid to the developing and poor countries, the number of the poor instead of decreasing has increased tremendously due to a number of reasons. It has forced the political economists to think that the transfer of development aid, economic resources and technical know how is not enough to reduce mass poverty in these countries. It also has urged the planners, development experts and political economists to review and reconsider the current development strategies practices, patterns and norms. Out of the experiences of their working in these countries it has been found that the participation of the rural poor themselves in improving their lot in their backward/remote areas is a must. Experts have pointed out various means and ways in enhancing and better use enabling their existing potentialities and resources, strengthening of local institutions and "learning from the future" where past experience fails to a reliable source of knowledge for their development activities. Izzeldin Bakhit it al. (1996) have outlined the importance of traditional values in human resources development, better use of local resources, "strengthening the role of local institutions and organizations, "informal sector as a source of income" for the poor" and the role and chances of woman in attacking the roots of poverty in rural areas. Nepal may not be an exception to this and can reduce poverty by doing these things. Income generation schemes according to the geographical, ecological and regional needs and priorities may be one of the practical measures to reduce poverty in Nepal. Attempts, thus would have to be made to encouraging the income generation schemes in different ecological zone (e.g. in the Himalayan, Hill and Terai (outer and Inner) regions (eastern, central, western, mid western and for western). Systematic scientific and revolutionary land redistribution measures that may bring reforms in land system including the implementation of the land Reform Act, 2020 deduce the land ceiling, respect the rights of the tenants end double ownership system would also be helpful in this direction.

The proper, practical and scientific identification of the poor and adopting practical programs for their
welfare and income generation measures is a prerequisite for poverty reduction. Their access to means of production, existing sources has to be encouraged formally and informally. Income generation schemes and employment opportunities have to be increased. In this connection, it would be appropriate to impart practical and vocational education so that they poor can earn livelihood by generating incomes at local level. The promotion of agro based small scale industries at rural increase the income of the poor and may promote sustainable development. The imparting of rural credit would also become helpful to the development of rural market, transportation mechanism to take rural products to nearest urban centers. The capacity enhancement and modernization of the traditional skills and professions (e.g. goldsmith, blacksmith and shoe keepers) may generate additional income and attract the young generation to their ancestral occupation. The modernization of the existing/previous knowledge and expertise may give recognition, self respect and self esteem to these groups which in most cases result the growth of their income. Regarding the proper review, evaluation and monitoring of the ongoing projects, integrated and holistic approach/approaches have to be encouraged and proper guidelines (Nirdesika) by the concerned ministries have to be made public. In this connection, based on the time and situation, early detection and early intervention by the government may seem essential in some context. The I/NGOs and international donor community have been conducting different programs in different parts of the country to reduce poverty in Nepal in different forms and styles depending on the availability of their fund. In this context, HMG/N and international donor community and I/NGOs should/have to identify common programs of actions and invest their money in an integrated and holistic manner. While conducting poverty reduction programs a number of issues including advocacy about human rights (HRs,) participation of the rural poor, voiceless and marginalized in the decision making process, in general the rights based approach have also to be raised and promoted.

The social inclusion and the integration of different socio-cultural/ethnic groups in undertaking any program/group formation become prerequisite for this.

One important thing in this direction would be to introduce the system of nation wide award or reward system to those stakeholders (e.g. the government, I/NGOs, CBOs, the poor, social workers, and political activists) for their best action/activity method, practice, so that they get proper system of recognition in society. As development is a multidimensional and multi sect oral issue, frequent changes in government and policy and the lack of continuity in programs may damage poverty reduction schemes. The extension of existing programs schemes and activities has to be given continuity and wide coverage so that the rural poor may be benefited through them. The broader coverage may include the participation of private sector and encouragement to need based reforms in the related sector. The government private sector international donor community and the I/NGOs have to encourage wide coverage follow and reinvent, reapplication Nepal must search the best approach and practices practiced through out the world countries in (as kibus in case of cooperatives in Israel, and cooperatives in some parts of china) The process of rural industrialization (e.g. establishing small and cottage industries) and the use of existing agro-based local raw materials in them have to be encouraged by providing a number of concessions and benefits to them e.g. exemption of tax for certain period of time electricity at cheap/nominal rate, supply of wood and their etc to mention a few.

The successful implementation of poverty reduction depend on the strong political commitment of the political leaders particularly those in power. Poverty can not be reduced all of a sudden, for this, the inadequate human and monetary resources have to be used properly and with broader coverage (e.g. out of 50 VDCs in Dolpa, only 30 VDCs have some poverty reduction. But such programs have to be extended) the planners have to make long term plans and perspectives for poverty reduction and give continuity with strong administrative and political commitment. The planners should not think that (as it is generally found in Nepal) only five years are a enough for this. Everything can not be done within a short period like a magic stick. The poverty can be reduced only when people below poverty line can get adequate food (as is mentioned in International covenant on Economic social and (cultural Rights, 1966 made by UNGA) and gel favorable environment to fulfill their basic/minimum needs get proper education and in short lead dignified life in the existing environment/society. The private sector and CSOs involvement in such activities is must in to-day's globalized context if poverty has to be really/practically reduced. During the past, the government programs regarding poverty reduction farming in most cases proved stereotype and one way in approach. But they have to be diversified in the changed context. In the past, focus was given on only one sector (e.g. goat keeping buffalo keeping for mild but if the programs would have been launched in holistic, integrated basis (e.g. vegetable, poultry or sericulture horticulture side by side according to need priority and availability of resources the programs for poverty reduction would have been more successful. In the past, women development considered as the part/unit of poverty reduction. Women development is not enough to reduce poverty for this, not only the development of the women but also the role of family, society, community, local leadership, local environment is important to empower women. Not only the women, but also the males in their families, local leadership and local people have to make aware and politically conscious. They should also be trained made aware, make advocacy about gender rights, gender equality and equity and advocacy against discrimination laws. The broader concept of development with democracy was realized in post 1990 period in the context of broader global trends (e.g. globalization, privatization, liberalization, marketization, liberalization, democratization) Though privatization encourages maximum participation of the private sector, the Nepalese political system (1990-2002) failed to improve the lot of the agro based vulnerable, landless, socially discriminated people.

Due to internal political conflict, in post 1996 days, poverty could not be reduced. As the post 1990 government failed to recognize the integrated and holistic approach, of development and poverty reduction schemes could not prove fruitful.

The pro-poor activities conducted by the international donor community and I/NGOs remained inadequate. Due to Maoist insurgency, poverty is gradually increasing. If the problem could not be solved, poverty will go on increasing and increasing in the days to come.

The Nepalese media (both electronic and print), by promoting good governance participatory democracy and sustainable development have to play significant role in unearthing and raising the issues of the rural poor and pressuring the government to launch special program for their upliftment. The Nepali media in post 1990 days in comparison to pre 1990 period, have considerable raised their issues but they have yet to reach the inaccessible remote areas to listen the grievances of the rural poor and pressurize the government to act accordingly or undertake appropriate measures for that. The concept of good governance, participatory democracy and sustainable development and other attractive slogans practically become meaningless without the reduction of the poverty of the rural poor and bringing them in the mainstream politics and decision making or without their effective participation. The non resident Nepalese (NRN) in their two meetings in Kathmandu in 2004 and 2005 had showed their willingness to invest their capital in Nepal and HMG/N by framing certain practical laws have to encourage them for this, which to some extent, may become instrumental for poverty reduction. The remittance so far the Nepalese getting from foreign countries have to be invested in safe sectors and places. So that it can contribute to poverty reduction.

Conclusion

In post 1990 period, when Nepal was exposed to western liberal democratic values and characteristics of open society, Nepal attempted to bring some solid programs for poverty reduction. The international donor community and I/NGOs have also played significant role in this direction. The 10th plan has also the specific targets programs for poverty alleviation.

This information has been generated after discussion with Mr. Ganesh P. Upadhayaya, under secratary, Ministry of Women, Children and Social Welfare, HMG, Nepal.