Repatriation Of Bhutanese Refugees
Light At The End Of The Tunnel

THE Bhutanese refugee problem is the making of Bhutan itself. It was in the late 1980s that Bhutan adopted a one-country-one-people policy and intensified its ethnic cleansing campaign. Under the campaign, the Nepali-speaking Bhutanese living in southern Bhutan, known as the Lhotsampas, were forcibly evicted. They travelled all the way through India and landed in eastern Nepal. At that time, it was not expected that the first batch of 60 refugees who came to Nepal in Decemeber 1990 would swell to around 100,000. The Bhutanese refugees have since been living in UNHCR-maintained camps in Jhapa and Morang districts.

Being a least developed country facing difficulties in coping with food, clothing and shelter problems, Nepal is not in a position to support the refugees forever. It is on humanitarian grounds that the country has supported the refugees till now.

The first attempt was made by Nepal to solve the problem by holding joint ministerial-level talks with Bhutan way back in 1993. It was during the talks that the two Himalayan Kingdoms agreed to assort the refugees into four categories: bonafide Bhutanese, emigrated Bhutanese, criminal Bhutanese and non-Bhutanese. Nepal’s acceptance of such categorisation has been a sticking point since then.

Bhutan is adamant on taking back only the bonafide Bhutanese, whereas Nepal maintains that Bhutan should take back all the refugees except the non-Bhutanese. Bhutan can under no circumstances be forced to take back the non-Bhutanese refugees as well. These conflicting stands of the two countries stood in the way of successful talks till the 10th round of talks in Kathmandu in December 2000.

However, the 10th round of talks turned out to be a landmark to the astonishment of every one, paving the way for the verification of the refugees. The success of the talks was attributed mainly to two factors: growing international pressure on Bhutan and thawing Nepal-Bhutan relations. But categorisation and harmonisation process have remained on the back burner since then.

In fact, Bhutan had been giving Nepal and the world community the runaround all those years. It had been insisting that it would take back only the bonafide Bhutanese simply because its law would not allow it to take back the other categories. If so, Nepal is not bound to assimilate the other Bhutanese into its land, either.

Any way, as resolved during the 10th round of talks the verification of the refugees has been going on in the Khudunabari camp with 1,200 families as a test case since March 26 2001. (There was a postponement of about four weeks due apparently to the 11th round of talks.) Initially, 10 families were scheduled to be verified per day by the Nepal-Bhutan Joint Verification Team (JVT) with five members from each side. But for one reason or the other, the pace of the verification was found to be very slow. Even a conservative estimate showed that it would take over five years to complete the verification. By that time, new babies would have been born and old people would have passed away. This would certainly make the issue more complicated. So the sooner the completion of the verification, the better.

It was with this in mind that Nepal and Bhutan held the 11th round of talks in Thimpu in August 2001 in order to accelerate the pace of the verification. The talks proved to be fruitful in some respects. It was agreed during the talks to add one member each from Nepal and Bhutan to the JVT, to simplify the verification process and to delegate authority to the team to settle minor issues on their own. Since then, 15 families have been verified per day.

However, Nepal’s demand that the verification be completed in a time-bound manner, ie by fixing a timeframe, harmonisation be maintained on the categorisation of the refugees and the refugees be resettled on their land back home were spurned by Bhutan.

These shortcomings notwithstanding, the kingdom agreed that they would categorise the verified refugees of the Khudunabari camp once they harmonised their stands on the categorisation at a foreign secretary-level meeting slated to be held soon after the completion of the verification. And thereafter, the first batch of the refugees will be repatriated to Bhutan while the other refugees will be verified as usual.

It is at this point that what is Bhutan’s real intention will come out into the open. Bhutan asserts that the Lhotsampas do not have valid documents to prove that they are Bhutanese citixens, whereas the Bhutanese citizens maintain that they do have one document or the other in evidence of their being Bhutanese citizens. They recall how they were forced into signing voluntary migration forms at gunpoint and expelled from their homeland.

Further, Bhutan relentlessly blames Nepal for the protraction of the problem. Nepal’s unstable political environment and frequent change of guards in the government are often cited as responsible for the delay in solving the problem.

The refugees are, on the other hand, anxious to go back home and equally worried about threats to Bhutanese security and sovereignty posed by the United Liberation Front of Assam (ULFA) and the Bodo National Democratic Force (BNDA), Assamese militant groups taking shelter in Bhutan.

The involvement of a mediator from India or any other country designated by the UNHCR would have facilitated the verification process to a great extent. That India has not shown any interest in the settlement of the refugee problem is a matter of great concern. After all, Bhutan’s security and foreign policy and guided by India.

It is obvious that Bhutan will not take back all the refugees. If such were the case, the verification exercise would not have taken place. It may, however, be hoped that the Bhutanese refugee problem will be solved in an amicable manner and that the refugees will have an opportunity to see their homeland again and identify themselves with the mainstream of the development of their country. If this happens, Bhutan will earn laurels from the world community and a good example will be set for other countries with similar problems to follow.

Drug Abuse And Mental Health Problems

By Dr. Niranjan Prasad Upadhyay

DRUG abuse has come to denote both psychological and physiological dependence.The term drug abuse is used to indicate the excessive consumption of a drug, regardless of whether an individual is truly dependent on it. Drug abuse or dependent may occur at any age, but seems to be most common during adolescence and young adulthood. Clinical pictures vary markedly, depending on the types, amount and duration of drug usage, the physiological and psychological make up of the individual and the social setting in which the drug experience occurs.

Today, people have little understanding of the causes of mental health problems. Especially, due to this there has been a steady growth of scientific and medical concern with the nature and treatment of mental problems where formerly the mentally ill were looked on, as sinful people possessed of demons, they are now conceived as sick people deserving treatment and human care.

Extensive research findings have made it clear that a wide range of complex individual and environmental factors account for the initiation and development of drug abuse behaviour. Psychologists have indicated that drug abusers are mostly immature, emotionally disturbed and psychopathic in nature. Drug researchers have noted that the use of illicit drug could lead to the different form of mental and social problems. It is psychologically proved that drug addiction leads to social, antisocial reactions toward social circumstances. The psychologists have indicated that drug abuse usually leads to psychological imbalance and personality disturbance. Nepalese drug researchers have highlighted that abusers who use cocaine always develop the symptoms like laziness, thinking difficulty, speaking disorder and loss of memory. Psychologists has postulated that drug abuse starts due to excessive peer pressures, curiosity and enjoyment, lack of appropriate control and quarrel in the family. Also researchers have indicated that drug abuse is the apparent manifestation of the psychosocial problem.

Nepalese youth addicts come from different strata of the society. Researchers’ findings show that the youth of the upper income groups are more seriously indulged in drug addiction. Behavioural change among drug users is a very difficult and complicated task.

The latest Family Health International Survey shows diversified pictures of drug abusers i.e. 17.3 per cent of sex workers in Kathmandu suffer from HIV positive, half of all injecting drug users in Kathmandu valley are infected, more than 80 per cent of injecting drug users are sexually active and 40 per cent are married. HIV/AIDS cases are now crossing 35,000.The mental health researchers have remarked that mostly drug users in Kathmandu prefer to use cheaper drugs like tidijesic, a sedative containing morphine and synthetic morphine or benzodizapam. The clinical psychologists and psychiatrists of developed and developing countries have mainly categorized drug into five watertight compartments viz. narcotics, cannabis, stimulants, depressants, and hallucinogens. Generally, various types of psychological, physiological and social problems are observed in drug abusers. Drug abuse creates mental problem to every individual. Basically the study of drug abuses and mental problems are interrelated approach in the field of mental health science. So, clinical psychologists, psychiatrists and sociologists should work jointly in the field of treating such problems for rehabilitating the individual in proper and effective environment.

It is proved through psychological research that an effective environment gains only through good parenting. Ineffective environment may lead to the drug abuse to the individual. Indian Journal of psychology (1991) has remarked that parenting by implication, aims at setting the best type of family climate for a congenial socialization of the child as well as mental health development of his or her personality and self. Every one’s personality is the creation of his or her family. It is in the family that the child first experiences the meaning of love. Family provides a framework within which the child may find a sense of belonging. Psychologist has stated that the parent - child relationship significantly affects the make up of child’s personality. Researcher focuses that good citizen, good workers, good husbands, good parents and good wives come from homes in which the children are wanted and accepted. Acceptance satisfaction possesses a pervading importance for healthy development of the individual.

Generally, the people have legal sanction for certain things used for the reducing or eliminating somatic complaints. Mostly, the people prefer tea, coffee or soft drink as a way to get relief from headaches, to reduce daytime fatigue and boredom. Whatever the side effects of talking such items in the body; their initial effects are usually pleasing.

Psychiatrist has focused that environmental factors influence the prevalence and progress of the substance used in adolescents. Thus it can be inferred that drug abusers have higher levels of anxiety. Abusers and non-abusers demand differs significantly on socialization. Basically, addicts have significantly more somatic anxiety, muscular tension, avoidance and suspension as compared to non-abusers. Abusers show significantly low socialization and high score of psychopathic deviation than non-abusers.

Drug abuse today is one of the perennial and pervasive problems that almost all the countries have faced. Drug abuse has invaded the home, the work-place and educational institutions regardless of race, class or sex. It is highly complex subject, which covers the bio-medical and psycho-pharmacological effects of drugs on body functions and behavioural response of the user.

Drug abusers generally reveal a gregarious, outward appearance of self-assonance with inner feelings of self-doubt, fear, hostility and depression. They show irresponsibility, carelessness and self-centeredness.

Especially, in Nepalese context, there are numerous non-governmental organizations working in the field of treating drug abuse cases. Some NGOs like Richmond Fellowship, Freedom Center, Youth Vision and Ashra have played significant roles in treating and rehabilitating drug abusers.

On the whole, good school based education should be integrated into the whole curriculum, provided by the children’s normal reaches that can provide role models for the children are to emulate. Information about drug use, including its effect on the body and the mind, social relationship and the community, and exposure to the healthy behaviour, which should be imparted from pre-school through tertiary and postgraduate education. Such education about drug use and its effect should be seen as one part of a comprehensive approach to drug reduction. But it should be realistically integrated into life education in the school and in the home.

Mobile-Commerce The Present And The Future

By Dr. Subarna Shakya & Deepak Rauniar

RARELY has a new area of business been heralded with such enthusiasm as "Mobile Commerce" that is the conduct of business and services over portable, wireless devices. Due to the astronomical growth of the Internet users, maturation of the Internet technologies, realization of the Internet’s capabilities, the power of electronic commerce, and the promising advancement of wireless communication technologies and devices, mobile commerce has rapidly attained the business forefront. An M-Commerce application can be B2B, B2C or any other of the classifications available with e-commerce world. M-commerce, although not fully mature, has the potential to make it more convenient for consumers to spend money and purchase goods and services. Since wireless devices travel with the consumer, the ability or perhaps temptation to purchase goods and services is always present. This is clearly a technique that can be used to raise revenue. Also, the successful future of m-commerce depends on the power of the underlying technology drivers and the attractiveness of m-commerce applications.

M-commerce is similar to E-commerce except that access is provided by wireless means rather than the traditional fixed telephone and data networks. Typically applications include: online banking, e-commerce transactions, information provisioning as well as custom-made solutions according to individual company needs. Futhermore, the mobility that the emerging wireless terminals provide has wider implications for the way in which business will be conducted in the future.

At the present M-commerce is currently being built on the mobile communi-cations infrastructure: Global System for Mobile Commu-nications (GSM), the system we all use to talk through our mobile phones and send short text messages. Mobile phone users are connected to the Internet with Wireless Application Protocol (WAP). WAP is roughly equivalent to HTTP for traditional Internet access. The protocol has been optimized for use with the GSM and the limited display capabilities of today’s mobile terminals (phones). The language used to carry the WAP content is Wireless Markup Language (WML). It is similar to HTML but simpler and custom made for the mobile world with its special characteristics and limitations.

GSM represents the 2nd generation of Mobile Communications and in the future its suitability for M-commerce will be thwarted by its limited bandwidth of 9.6 Kbits/sec. However developments for increased bandwidth are in the pipeline.

General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), also known as 2+G is the next phase in the development of the mobile commerce. GPRS represents the first implementation of packet switching within GSM, which is essentially a circuit switched technology. GPRS will enable users to send and receive data at speeds up to 115 Kbits/sec. The implementation of GPRS will bring for the first time Internet Protocol (IP) capability to the GSM networks for the first time and enable connection to a wide range of public and private data networks using industry standard data protocol such as TCP/IP and X25. GPRS is ideal for ‘bursty’ data applications such as e-mail of Internet access. It can also enable ‘virtual permanent connection’ to data sources, allowing information to arrive rather than being sought. This cannot be achieved using standard circuit-switched networks. An added advantage for the GSM service providers is that by upgrading their networks to GPRS, they can attain third generation capabilities, as the Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) will use packet switching technology.

UMTS is the chosen standard for the 3rd generation mobile Internet. It will support a wide range of voice, data and multimedia services. The data rates offered by UMTS for different modes are: vehicular-144Kbits/sec; pedestrian 384 Kbits/sec; in building 2Mbits/sec.