Writing on a Dead language

The Kusundas are on the verge of extinction - most of us know this and it is not a pleasant fact. The Kusundas are getting ‘extinct’ - as it appears at the moment. But, there is a small hope that we could save this ethnic group of people provided we become committed and start working together, at once, for their welfare as there still live some Kusundas in the central hills of the country. And, the already ‘extinct’ Kusunda language could also be ‘revitalised’, since the Kusundas there speak their mother tongue.

‘There may be Kusundas still alive. We met one in Dang. But, the Kusunda language, which is not yet studied well and classified, is extinct’ - wrote Professor Chuna Mani Bandhu in his keynote address to the Fifth Himalayan Language Symposium held in Kathmandu September, 1999.  Prof. Bandhu had met a Kusunda lady of 65 some 13 years ago. The Kusunda lady could speak her tongue fluently. But unfortunately, the lady ‘ died three years ago’ - told her son, the Rajamama. This Rajamama has no home of his own nor has he a proper name to address to by others. People call him Kusunda Kanchha; some say Banaraja and most others call him the Rajamama.

As this Rajamama has not a home of his own. He works in the field, sometime does masonry and earns a living. He has a periphery where he halts at night wherever he arrives. The landlord or landlady has known him for years and offers him a shelter for the night. If hungry, he is given something to eat, with love. Everyone loves him.

He is now fifty but doesn’t look so. He said, “I have never been ill, neither have I experienced any fever”. He was born in the jungle. As the process of deforestation gained momentum and there was shortage of food, his mother took him out together with his sister. The mother took a room on rent in Talghare, Tanahu. She worked hard to raise her two children. How should have the Kusunda mother striven to bring up her two children - we can just imagine for the father was not there. Either he was already dead or gone somewhere else — only the mother knew. The Rajamama does not mention anything about his father. He now remembers his mother and the sister. His maternal uncle died some 15 Years ago.

The Rajamama is now happy with others. Sometimes, he goes to drink also. Last year, his sister visited him on the occasion of Bhai Tika. The two, brother and sister met, our Rajamama received tika from the sister and then drank wine. As he drank, the wine intoxicated him; he couldn’t care for the sister. She had come from Pokhara to see the brother.

The Kusunada language is now extinct - it is so believed. The Summer Institute of Linguistic-SIL has published a report stating the Kusunda language as extinct. An Austrian scholar Jhoan Reinhard had reported in mid-seventies that there were  ‘only few speakers left alive, only two’ so he had urged to carry out a thorough research on the Kusunda language. Did anybody listen to him then? Now, Reinhard is busy at some caves in Andes Mountain, South America and he has been able to find a scull of a ‘sacrificed girl’ of some five hundred years, before an alter. The government has spent a huge amount of money on the Chepangs but the Hayus and Kusundas have not got any assistance as such. Hodgson has mentioned that Hayu, Chepang and Kusund are of the same stock; coming from the Lophas of Bhutan, has yet been made on it.

Reinhard should be able to transcribe a list of 100 Kusunda cognates.  In just a two and half-hour time, I have also managed to record 29 words from the Rajamama and some of them tally with that of Reinhard’s. Few other words are different and not listed in the Reinhard report.

I have tallied few words with other Tibeto-Burman family languages and found them mutually intelligible, having common elements in them. For example: a banana is ‘mucha’ in Kusunda, ‘mocha’ in Magar and ‘moje’ in Tamang language. Kusundas say ‘tang’ for water, Shaukas say it ‘ti’ and Magars ‘di’ - there are alveolar ‘t and d’ present in these words. Millet is called ‘mangmi’ and ‘tu’ for a snake in Kusunda and the Sherpa people say them ‘manjya’ and ‘du’ respectively. Similarly, Magars say “langha’ for village, ‘dishya’ for fish and ‘bhokta’ for clothes whereas the Kusundas say for these words ‘langhai’ , ‘nsa’ and ‘bukta’ respectively. In Tamang language a crab is called ‘kakhare’ and in Kusunda it is called ‘Kakchi- there are other words too which have some similarities with other Tibeto-Burman languages. Linguistically, these words are of great importance; on the other hand there is uncertainty whether these words could have been borrowed from any other languages. But, how should have the Rajamama and his mother learnt a Sherpa language of remote Himalayas?

Of saving the Kusunda and preserving his tribal existence, what is important for now is that he should receive some money on a regular basis from any entity. When he has a regular income he can marry a woman of age so that she could bear some children for him. His tribal existence could be preserved this way. And of the language, he should have an appropriate atmosphere. He says that he has forgotten his language. But, there is a small hope that his memory power could be revitalised by creating an environment. He says he has none to converse in ‘aafnoo kura’  - his language. If we could bring his sister in his vicinity and ask them to have conversation in Kusunda language, they might be able to enliven their already ‘dead’ language. The sister also should receive some money from any entity on a regular basis; however, this seems to be a bit unrealistic and ambitious. This is a sort of doing thing for a cause.

The Kusunda language is supposed to be dead before being well studied and classified. Professor Bandhu has this sort of belief. The SIL has already classified this language as falling in Tibeto-Burman family. The report mentions that the last speaker died in 1985 but our Rajamama told his mother died just three years ago. And, we hope the Kusunda and their language could be saved if we worked in a really meaningful way.

Nepalese architecture

Shan Bahadur Basnet & Raj Kumar Niraula

the word ‘Bastu’, which means residence (basasthan), is derived from the Sanskrit root ‘Bas’ and the art of constructing structures is called (Bastukala), architecture.

It is estimated that progress in architecture started when people began living permanently.  Not only were the new types of houses built, but different styles of temples were also constructed during the developmental shift in Nepalese architecture.

 It is evident from the available evidences that burnt bricks have been in use for architecture since third century BC. Ancient and Medieval specimen of Nepalese architecture can be seen in and around different places of Kathmandu valley in the form of palaces, temples, stupas, monasteries, etc. The construction of Lichhavi king Man Dev’s Managriha, Changu Narayan and King Anshu Verma’s Kailashkut all can be taken as the main examples of the Ancient architecture. These Lichhavi buildings’ discriptions are found in Chinese ‘Tasang Britanta’. According to the Sanga Sculpture of 668 B S, Kailashkut, a nine storied building, had all ornamental parts and even the top floor could accommodate ten thousand people.

 Medieval architecture (Krishna temple of Patan and Maha Boudha stupa) was developed in the Malla Period. Study reveals that a number of styles and designs have been used in architecture since the Lichhavi Period up to the present age. Pagoda, Shikhar, stupa, monastery, etc are different forms of the ancient and the medieval architecture. These architectural wonders are full of various designs and give genuine information to the study of civilisation.

The effect of pagoda style in Nepalese architecture

The style, which was used in Myanmar, was brought for the first time into Nepal during the Lichhavi Period. The tall towers with several stories, each of which has its own overhanging roof, is the Pagoda style of architecture. The two places of Bhadgawn — Tripur and Youthnimhum are of this type and this style became famous even during the region of Jayasthiti Malla. This architecture succeeded in keeping its own identity during the Malla period. The instances of this model are Changu Narayan, Daktatraya temple, etc. The use of this style is also found in the temples of Dolakha, Panauti, Banepa, Gorkha etc. Among the best specimen of the Pagoda style, Pashupati temple, which has silver doors and a golden roof, is the largest and the most attractive two-storeyed temple. It was constructed by Dharmadutta and renovated firstly by Queen Ganga, the queen of king Shiva Singh Malla and later by Pratap Malla. The attractive supporters of this temple, the wood and the metal’s net curtain, the Trishul shape of the tomb, the threads, leaves, different bells have added to the beauty of this form. Similarly, Nyatpola Dewal (five-storeyed temple) that was constructed in 1759 B S by Bhupatindra Malla, by the king of Bhaktapur, has different statues of Gods and Goddesses, images of lions and numerous staircases. This is the highest and a most attractive temple of this sort.

The Pagoda model, which was used in the Lichhavi period, gained its popularity during the Malla period. This style, that became popular, stood as an identity of culture, religion and history. The following are the salient features of Pagoda style:

§ There is a mixture of bricks and wood in this style.

§ There is use of metals or tiled roofs.

§ The overhanging roof is supported by artistic tundals (supporters).

§  The temple is decorated by garlands, just below the overhanging roof.

§   Water does not stagnate on the roof and therefore it lasts longer.

§  Doors are narrow and low.

§  The size of the roof decreases with every additional storey.

The effect of Shikhar style in Nepalese architecture

The Shikhar model temples which were constructed during the Gupta Period in India were not seen during the contemporary Lichhavi period in Nepal. The mountain-shaped temples were constructed during the 16th and 18th centuries. The Krishna Temple of Patan (made only by stone) was built by Siddhi Narsingh Malla in 1693 B S. The Bramha temple which is constructed in the popular Khajurao model of India, stands in the western part of Pashupati temple and the Mahaboudha temple of Patan which is in the Gaya style can be taken as the instances of this style.

 The features of this model are:

§ The sloping roof can’t be seen.

§ These types of temples are safe from sun and rain.

§There is an exhibition path around the temple and idols are kept inside.

§ These types of temples are built by using pieces of stones.

§ The outer part is plastered incase of bricks to keep safe from wind and rain.

The effect of the stupa style in Nepalese architecture

The Buddhists build stupas after burying the dead bodies of their relatives. It is a semi-circular monument. The idols of Lord Buddha can be seen in the ancient shrine of Kathmandu, Lumbini and Kapilvastu. It is said that King Man Dev, being a Buddhist, constructed the stupa of Swayambhu some two thousand years ago. The stupa of Swayambhu and Mahabouddha were constructed by King Shiva Dev and are excellent examples of this style. The main features of this style are:

§ A Pinnacle and a roof is used in the stupa style.

§ Praying circle and lamp are in the lower part of the pinnacle.

§ Thirteen wheels are in the lower part of the pinnacle as the symbol of thirteen creations.

§ There are meditating statues of Lord Buddha.

§ There is two eyes, the symbol of religion and the Sun and the Moon — the symbol of kindness.

§ There is a question mark between the two eyes.

§ In the stupas, special things connected to Buddhism are kept.

The effect of Vihar style in Nepalese architecture

It is found that the Vihar style was started in Nepal with the construction of the Charumati Vihar of Chabahil by Charumati, the daughter of Ashoka the Great, an emperor of India. Such models of Vihars were initially used for the residence of Buddhist monks. In due course of time, these Vihars were used for the study of Buddhism and its philosophy. Now, these places are found to be used as prominent places for imparting education and for preaching by Buddhist scholars.

The Vihars were built in Lumbini and Kapilvastu in the fifth century BC. Its development gradually took place during the Lichhavi period but heightened in the Malla period. The manuscripts tell us that this model such as Man Vihar, Gun Vihar, Raj Vihar, etc preached Buddhism extensively in the Lichhavi period. The Hiranya Mahavihar and Subarna Mahavihar of Patan are examples of this style. Following are the specialties of this style:

§ There is an open space in the centre enclosed by walls on all the four sides. The four slanting walls are like circular quadrilateral.

§  The images of Lord Buddha are carved on the tundals of the Vihars and the tundals are placed as they are placed in temples.

§ The central open space of the Vihar is developed in the form of a courtyard.

§ Different idols of gods and goddesses are found inside the courtyard.

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