Ethics in the age of the
Gene
By Jens Reich, Molecular Biologist,
Germany
The deciphering of the human genome
brings with it a wealth of new sights into both the origins and future of the human
species. By comparing the gene sequences of primates and early humans, we can learn more
about our place in biological and cultural evolution; such evidence provides information,
which is as precise as that of authenticated written sources. Initial results indicate
that all human beings originate from Africa and that their genetic affinity is so close
that there is no further scientific justification for retaining the concept of race in
human biology. Our understanding of the evolution and functioning of the human body will
also increase. We will be in a much better position to understand the laws that govern
inheritance and the nature of acquired individual characteristics, in so far as these have
a genetic base. Such new biological insights will perhaps draw a line under many an
ideological debate, but they will scarcely provide fuel for new controversy. Controversy
will certainly arise, however, over investigation into the genetic makeup of the
individual. Of great significance here is the diagnosis of hereditary dispositions and the
concomitant possibility-actually severely limited for the most part-of predicting an
individual’s future life. An explosive issue is the greater potential for genetic
testing during pregnancy; so long as it is limited to suggesting abortion as the only
"effective therapy", this will be of little help to those concerned. A very
pressing question is what diagnosis procedures should be allowed before pregnancy, on
embryos at an early stage of development, and in the cases of artificial insemination-if
such diagnoses allow the selection of desirable and the prevention of undesirable
offspring. It is an open question as to whether laws aimed at ensuring that decisions
based on such diagnoses are made on strictly medical grounds can really prevent an
insidious broadening of the criteria applied. We must also regulate the use of genetic
testing to diagnose future risks of illness-whereby a straightforward ban on such testing
will not solve the problem, since such diagnoses are in many cases extremely desirable.
The deciphering and diagnosis of the human
genome will-not immediately, but in the long term-also allow us to intervene in the
development of the human organism. It will be possible to create a genetically identical
twin from a mature individual, as well as a twin with deliberately "improved"
characteristics-even though pursuing such goals will probably lead to unforeseeable
mishaps. But the prospects opened up for medical therapy could also create ethical
conflicts when, for instance, it turns out that research into and production of
transplantable replacement cells and tissue necessitate the use of valuable donor material
and even of human embryos. I believe that making such material available for research is
not on the agenda at the moment, because insufficient research has been conducted on
animals to allow the objectives of similar research on humans to be precisely defined. In
addition, the necessary political discussion has not progressed far enough.
It is astonishing what a strong impetus the
new science of genetic biology has given to the biologisation of our concept of the human
being, both among those who applaud these developments and see them as grounds for
optimism, and to an even greater extent among those who view such developments with
concern- but who use the crudest materialistic arguments to present their case, portraying
genome researchers as modern-day Frankenstein who have taken over control of the human
genome and thus of the fate of humanity. Such fears are based on a completely exaggerated
mechanistic concept of how the human organism functions. Yet the question still remains as
to how in the future we are to define what is human-and concomitantly what is human
dignity, what are human rights, and what is involved in protecting human life both before
and after birth.
It is clear that long term political and
legal solutions to the problems raised by genome research can be found only when we are
sure of finding answers to these basic questions. And it is also clear that ethics can not
be based on purely on biological facts. A precise knowledge of the role our genes play in
our existence is a precondition but not a sufficient basis for a normative morality. The
neurotic assertion that we are only autonomous at the very mercy of our genes and can thus
be manipulated at will simply complements the anticipatory spirit of resignation that
declares all moral decision-making to be powerless in the face of the twin threats of
cultural and economic globalization. A capacity for reason and self-determination is not a
sufficient precondition for that human dignity which we wish to defend, since many people
do not possess these qualifications to a sufficient degree-yet they still clearly possess
human rights that merit protection. Still less does the mere material fact of human
existence justify these basic rights. I am convinced that the human rights should be
premised on the fact that we human beings are creatures who lead a communal existence
together. A primarily metaphysical conviction that the rationale behind human existence
consists of more than its simple duration could also help define this basic ethical
position. I can only hope that any future discussion of the limits of human biology will
be characterized by more composure, more self-awareness and a more measured consideration
of the consequences of such research and how to control them that is evident at the
moment.
The author is a molecular
biologist and former GDR civil rights activists and is conducting research at the Max
Delbruck Center in Berlin. Text courtesy Deutschland E4 N2/2001, April/May 2001 , Embassy
of Germany, Kathmandu, Nepal.
An Industrial Revolution
-Simon Griver, Israel
Like many industrialized nations, Israel has
become much more environmentally aware over the past decade. The process has been helped
by a unique competition organized by the Council for a Beautiful Israel, which awards
annual prizes to exemplary economic enterprises.
"There has been nothing short of
an industrial revolution in Israel over the past 20 years", asserts Mira Lapin, the
Council’s Director of National Competitions. "When we first started the
competition in 1980, industry was Grey, ugly and polluting. Today there are many
attractive looking factories and industrial zones." The concept of aesthetically
pleasing factories and industrial parks was pioneered by local entrepreneur Stef
Wertheimer. He established the Tefen Industrial park some 20 years ago on a remote
mountain summit in western Galilee. The park’s carefully designed buildings
complement the landscape and offer employees breathtaking views, while the public areas
include meticulously maintained lawn and gardens, as well as tasteful sculpture.
While Tefen’s success was universally
acclaimed, many local industrialists questioned the economic wisdom of such an initiative.
However, demand for space in the Tefen industrial was so high that Wertheimer has since
completed three more such parks: at Tel Hai in upper Galilee, Karmiel in western Galilee
and Omer in the Negev. In addition, dozens of other industrial parks for both high-tech
and traditional industries have since been built based on the Tefen model.
"Many industries are so self-motivated
to do the attractive and environmentally fight thing," observes Lapin, "that we
sometimes wonder whether our competition is really necessary. But even the most advanced
industries insist that there is so much more to be done and a competition format is the
best focus for improvement."’’ Lapin says she is surprised that, as far as
she knows, there are no similar competitions in other countries.
Founded in 1970 and headed by Aura Herzog,
wife of Israel’s late President Chaim Herzog, the Council for a Beautiful Israel was
one of the country’s first "green" movements. The competition for beauty in
industry takes into account a comprehensive range of factors ranging from the external and
internal appearance of a factory to maintenance, safety, security, hygiene and
cleanliness, lighting, garden areas and environmental topics such as recycling and
reducing pollution.
In addition, the competition takes into
account a firm contribution to the community. The Israel Electric Corporation, IEC, for
example, is engaged in activities ranging from helping to clean up the Hadera river, which
flows next to its largest power station, to saving the Negev lappet-faced vulture from
extinction. The IEC has also constructed a series of brightly colored sculptures, made of
electricity pylons, around the country. Other ‘artistic’ initiatives include
colorful lighting on the Nesher Cement factory in Ramla, which is seen clearly from the
Tel Aviv-Jerusalem highway, and several hundred human size penguins, each of them painted
by one of the country’s leading artists, commissioned by Creo-Scitex, a world leader
in digital printing.
"People spend at least a third of their
day at work," says Lapin. "It is important that they enjoy the working
environment"’.
Behind bars
Alain Bouregba, Pschologist, France
Every year in France, more than 15,000
children under three are separated from one of their parents by prison. The child-parent
association, RELAIS, has decided to get involved in supporting children in their
relationships with their imprisoned parents. A pioneering action in Europe indeed.
On visiting days, every prison wall casts its
shadow over the children’s footsteps. And this shadow is so big that for a long time
children who had a parent in prison had not been studied at all, nor been given specific
attention. When the first parent-child Relais was established in 1985, it broke with a
lengthy past of ignorance and negligence. Never had this issue been the subject of a
particular plan of action in Europe.
In France, in order to make early separations
between mothers and children that were likely to hinder the development of a young child
less frequent, the legislature gave permission for the child to stay with its imprisoned
mother up to the age of eighteen months. However, these arrangements are far from adequate
from resolving the difficulties of these babies. Firstly, because in the vast majority of
cases, they are separated from their father. Secondly, not all the mothers of a child
under eighteen months ask to see the child.
There are several reasons for this
renunciation: the length of the sentence, if it is short, the circumstances of arrest and
detention, and the length of confinement in the cells is over twelve years, confined in
10m square alone with her baby. Finally, many prisoners suffer from psychological
handicaps which even before their imprisonment, would impair their maternal behavior. In
the last instance, imprisonment speeds up a state of neglect, the roots of which are very
old.
In order to complete an exhaustive
consideration of all these difficulties, the eleven-parent child Relais organizations
throughout France, grouped together under a National Federation, are trying to promote a
certain number of operations, the effectiveness of which has been sufficiently proved to
serve as a model for similar actions in several countries of the European Union, in
Belgium, Italy and the Netherlands.
Helping to maintain the bonds: Three types of
operations are proposed. The first in terms of importance consists of accompanying the
visiting children to the prisons, so that they can meet their parent there. In 1999, the
four hundred volunteers from the Relais accompanying the children, supervised by forty-two
professionals, made over six thousand accompanied visits.
The second operation consists of conducting
what are called "parent reorientation" meetings in prison, during which it is
suggested to the imprisoned parent that they make an item for the child and, at the same
time, discuss with the organization’s intermediaries their place and role as a
parent.
The aim of the third track of the
associations’ network, with the help of the prison administration, is to make the
child’s visit to prison less difficult and traumatic by equipping premises
specifically designed for children. The child will then find furnishings, toys and an
educational atmosphere to which it is accustomed. Fifteen children’s rooms have thus
been opened by the Relais over a total of 180 establishments, which goes to show how much
work still has to be done.
However, the work already accomplished has
proved itself. In particular, it provides dual preventive action. For the young child, it
helps maintain continuity of its perceptions of parental commitment, without which its
psychological development may be severely compromised. But it also prevents the effects of
exclusion inherent in every spell in prison and which is one of the main factors in
re-offending.
Text courtesy: Label France N 43,
April/2001, Embassy of France, Kathmandu. |
