Resistance to Hitler-
July 20, 1944 and the consequences
A courageous step that
failed - but still had significant historical consequences: 60 years ago, on July 20,
1944, Claus von Stauffenberg tried to free Germany from Hitler
By Peter Steinbach
The assassination attempt that
Colonel Count Claus Schenk Graf von Stauffenbergs carried out on July 20, 1944 marked the
end of many years of efforts by top administrative officials and members of the military
to change the course of the war from the centre of power by putting an end to
Hitler’s leadership. Numerous people in circles surrounding this attempt on
Hitler’s life had often made attempts since 1938 to free Germany from the rule of
National Socialism. They were looking for alternatives to avoid a violent confrontation in
the struggle for supremacy in the centre of Europe. Others took action against
infringements of the law by the National Socialists. And again there were those who made
early preparations for a new constitutional order or structures in foreign relations
through discussions with like-minded people. The most important group was the circle of
friends surrounding Moltke and Yorck. This circle also included Adam von Trott zu Solz,
the most gifted foreign policy specialist involved in German resistance.
So close to success
On July 20, 1944 Stauffenberg, who as chief
of staff to the commander of the reserve army had direct access to the dictator, smuggled
a bomb into Hitler’s headquarters in East Prussia. The bomb later exploded during a
discussion of the military situation. Stauffenberg, who was urgently needed back in Berlin
to lead the planned coup, had to leave before the bomb exploded. However, Hitler survived
the assassination attempt and the coup failed. On the same evening of July 20th
Stauffenberg and three others were executed in Berlin by a firing squad in the courtyard
of the Bendlerblock, the German army’s supreme headquarters. In the following weeks
Hitler had 7,000 people arrested and many death sentences were passed. A total of over
10,000 people involved in the resistance fell victim to the National Socialists. In
present-day Germany interest in resistance to Hilter’s dictatorship seems to be not
only continuing, but also growing. Evidence of this can be seen at the annual swearing-in
of young soldiers and at celebrations where political leaders pay homage to the resistance
tradition. Recently over seven and a half million German viewers watched a television film
about Stauffenberg, despite the fact that a major football match was showing at the same
time. 60 years after the assassination attempt many Germans feel it important to honour
Stauffenberg’s resistance attempt. For decades now, the annual memorial ceremony in
the inner courtyard of the Bendlerblock has acted as a reminder of Stauffenberg’s
attack that came so close to killing Hitler. People have forgotten how, for decades, the
Germans found it extremely difficult to honour this act of resistance. Public opinion was
initially shaped by Nazi propaganda. Hitler announced early that same evening in his first
radio broadcast following the explosion that “obsessively ambitious, unscrupulous
officers” had attempted to kill him. During the following days most Germans openly
expressed their disgust. Those who recognized that military defeat was the only way that
Germany could be freed from National Socialist rule were forced to admire Stauffenberg in
secret. At that time most people regarded Stauffenberg’s actions simply as an attempt
to save his own skin at the last minute. They were not interested in knowing, let alone
acknowledging, how much courage and risk was involved for Stauffenberg, who had been
severely disabled in North Africa and was a married man with a family.
Interpretations and
reinterpretations
After liberation from National Socialism
the Germans changed their perspective. Stauffenberg was now no longer publicly defamed as
a traitor. But as a would-be assassin he was not regarded as a person who deserved
respect. In fact, former Hitler supporters tried to justify their own passiveness by
blaming Stauffenberg, not for the attack, but for the supposedly amateurish way it was
carried out. These accusations are unfounded. In the mid-fifties Stauffenberg’s
actions were then welcomed by many who, seeking status for Germany in the world,
reinterpreted the resistance attempt as being indicative of belief in a different Germany.
The idea of the one just person, whose existence was destined to save Germany from ruin,
was often quoted. Ten years after the defeat of the German forces, each of the two states
succeeding the German Reich sought to establish a part of their tradition based on the
resistance. In the GDR the leadership took a fairly simple view: German resistance was led
mainly by the Communists. In the West the story was different: opponents of the regime had
bowed to a conscience, based primarily on standards of human dignity. On the other hand,
some historians maintained that Stauffenberg’s resistance activities centred on
concepts of an authoritarian state. They claimed that, right up to the last weeks prior to
the assassination attempt, one of Stauffenberg’s main goals was still to secure
German dominance in the centre of Europe. This process of interpretation and
reinterpretation obscured the perception of Stauffenberg as a human being and the
significance of his personal achievement. He had overcome an inner position that he had
partially shared with the National Socialists in the beginning, and that by no means made
him a born opponent of the National Socialists. Nobody was interested in the stages of his
development away from the prevailing trends. Friends and acquaintances emphasize
Stauffenberg’s determination and unselfishness, his capacity for enthusiasm and his
great consistency. It was fairly late - 1943 - when he became the driving force of
resistance in Berlin. But once he had taken on this role, nothing could deter him. Without
any hesitation he made contacts to broaden the base of resistance. It is fascinating to
see how people were attracted by this man. The failure of the plan was not due to
Stauffenberg but to the weakness of his comrades who, on the evening of July 20th,
remembered their oath of allegiance to Hitler and betrayed Stauffenberg. The resistance
wanted to free the German people from Hitler - and there would have been a struggle over
the new shape of Germany, had the plan succeeded. We do not know what the solution would
have been. It would be historically incorrect to turn Stauffenberg simply into a symbol of
backward-looking principles because he acted within the limited perspectives of his times.
It would be equally mistaken to elevate him as the torch-bearer of a free and democratic
constitutional order. This new order was a result of defeat. But Stauffenberg still
remains fascinating as a human being. He did not act when it was too late, but because he
was one of the few people at that time who sought responsibility and were prepared to risk
striking the “decisive blow.” This was far more dangerous than remaining
faithful to the swastika flag, as did many others who used their oath of allegiance to
hide their cowardice. Meanwhile, despite all the criticism and contradictions,
Stauffenberg has secured a place in the memory of Germans. He and his friends believed in
a “different Germany.” Consequently, it is to be hoped that we seriously think
about what the writer Reinhold Schneider meant after the war when he said that resistance
fighters were “witnesses who stood in the midst of the fire.”
A failure with consequences
This is why remembering the resistance is
important. Because it became clear to the victims of the National Socialist regime that a
different Germany existed, one that embodied different values from those proclaimed by the
National Socialists. The resistance showed that there were forces in Germany who opposed
National Socialism. They were the people who eased Germany’s return into the circle
of civilized nations. Seen in this light, the failure of the assassination attempt had
historical consequences, and was by no means unsuccessful.
(Embassy of Germany) |
