k/df0f'sf] lgdf{0f pkkf/df0fljs s0fn] u5{

o; a|df08df /x]sf ;Dk"0f{ kbfy{x¿ k/df0f'x¿ ldn]/ ag]sf x'G5g\ . ;g\ !*)@ lt/ hf]g 8fN6gn] k/df0f'x¿sf] l;4fGt k|ltkfbg u/]sf lyP . pgsf cg';f/ kbfy{sf] ;a}eGbf ;fgf] efu k/df0f' xf] / o;nfO{ 6'qmf ug{ ;lsb}+g . t/ J.J. Thomson n] Electron sf] cfljZsf/ u/]sf] lyP . h;df (– ve) charge x'G5 / ;g\ !(!! df k/df0f'sf] Nucleus Rutherford n] cfljZsf/ u/]sf lyP . h;df (+ ve) charge /x]sf] kfOG5 . o;/L pks/0f kQfnufpg] qmddf Rof8ljsn] ;g\ !(#@ df Go'6f]{gsf] cfljZsf/ u/] . o;/L k/df0f'sf] tLgj6f cfwf/e"t pkkf/df0fljs s0fx¿ (Subatomic Particles) kQfnufOof] .

s'g} klg dflg;n] k/df0f'sf] ;+/rgf cWoog ubf{ s] eG7fG5g\ eg] k/df0f'x¿ tLgj6f cfwf/e"t pkkf/df0fljs s0fx¿ ldn]/ ag]sf x'G5g\ . of] s'/f ;g\ !(#@ df Go'6f]{g kQf nufpFbf ;Dd 7Ls} b]lvof] . o;/L k/df0f'x¿ k|f]6f]g / Go'6f]{g (Nucleus) df /xG5 / Eletron x¿ Go'lSno; jl/kl/ bL3{ j[Qfsf/ sIfx¿df tLj| a]un] 3'ld/xG5g\ / o;/L 3'Dbf On]S6«f]gx¿n] uf]nfsf/ sIfx¿ agfpFb5g\ .

To;kZrft\ nuQ} j}1flgsx¿n] xfO{ OghL{ s;lds /] kf/l6sN;sf] cWoog u/]/ xfn;Dddf To:tf @)) eGbf a9L pkkf/df0fljs s0fx¿ kQf nufPsf 5g\ . Rof8ljsn]] Chadwick Go'6f]{g kQfnufP jfkt !(#% sf] gf]a]n k'/:sf/ k|fKt u/]sf lyP . ;g\ !(#@ / !(#$ df klh6f]{g / Go'l6gf]{sf] cfljZsf/ eof] . PG8«f];g (Andronson) n] positron (+ve electron) kQfnufP jfkt !(#^ sf] gf]a]n k'?:sf/ k|fKt u/] . To;}u/L hfkfgsf] ef}lQs zf:qL (Physist) o'sfjf lxl8sLn] ;g\ !(#^ df d];g (Meson) kQfnufP, h;sf] lk08 proton / Electron sf] aLrlt/ kb{5 . pgn] o; d];g kQfnufP jfkt !($( sf] gf]a]n k'/:sf/ k|fKt u/]sf lyP . To;}u/L PlG6k|f]6f]g / PlG6Go'6«f]g ;g\ !(%% / ;g\ !(%^ df qmdzM Segre chamberlain / Cork Lamberton / Wenzel n] kQfnufPsf lyP . o;}u/L !(^) ;Dd yf]/} pkkf/df0fljs s0fx¿ kQfnufOP . To;kl5 lat]sf] $) jif{df pks0fx¿ olt w]/} kQfnfu]ls, h;nfO{ cf}+nfdf uGg g;lsg] eof] . /, j}1flgsx¿n] tL pkkf/df0fljs s0fx¿nfO{ ltgLx¿sf] lk08 / cf};t cfo'sf] cfwf/df tLg efudf ljefhg u/]sf 5g\ . h'g lgDgcg';f/ 5g\ M–

-i_ n]K6f]g; (Leptons)M– o;sf 5j6f n]K6f]g; / 5j6f PlG6n]K6f]g; (Antileptons) x'G5g\ .

-ii_ d]l8P6;{ M– o;df (w+, w-, z0) kb{5g\ . o;nfO{ u]h af]hg (Gauge Bosons) elgG5 .

-iii_ xfO8f]{g; (Hadrons) o; xf8f]{gnfO{ klg b'O{ efudf ljefhg ul/Psf] 5 .

-A_ d]hf]g (Meson) o;df kfof]g (Pion), sfof]g (kaon) O{6f kb{5g\ .

-B_ a]Oof]G; (Baryons) o;df kb{5 . o;nfO{ klg b'O{ efudf ljefhg ul/Psf] 5 .

(B1) Go"lSnog (Nucleon) o;df Go'6f]{g, k|f]6f]g / o;sf] Antiparticles kb{5g\ .

(B2) xfOk|f]G; (Hyperons) o;df Lamda, Sigma, Omega xi OToflb kb{5g\ .

;a} kbfy{sf] c0f'df k/df0f', k|f]6f]g / Go'6f]{g x'G5 . h;nfO{ Go'SnfOG; elgG5 . ;a} Go'SnfOG;sf] cfwf/e"t agfj6 tTj Sjfs{ (Quarks) xf] . Quarks g} charge particle x'g\ . logLx¿sf] rfh{ 2/3e / -1/3e x'G5 . o;/L Electron sf] rfh{ klg leqsf] ¿kdf b]vfOPsf] 5 . clxn];Dddf ^ j6f Quarks / ltgLx¿sf] antiquarks kQfnfu]sf 5g\ . h;df up(u), down(d) charm(c) strange (s), bottom(b) or Beauty / top quark (t) 5g\ . o;df klg (charm, up, top) sf] rfh{ 2/3e x'G5 / (down, strange, bottom) sf] rfh{ -1/3e x'G5 .

o;df ^ j6f antiquarks x¿ c, u, t, d, s, b, x'G5g\ .

c, u / t sf] rfh{ -2/3e x'G5 eg] d,s,b sf] 1/3e tLgj6f quark (uud) ldn]/ Pp6f Proton aGb5g\ . Q=2/3e+2/3e-1/3e= 1e . To;}u/L b'O{j6f ldn]/ d / u ldn]/ (-1/3e -1/3e+2/3e=0) Pp6f Neutron aGb5 . To;}u/L tLgj6f (antiquark) (u,u,d / d,d.u) ldn]/ antiproton / antineutron aGb5 . ;g\ !(() df j}1flgsx¿ Henry, Way Kendall Richard Edward Taylor / Pp6f Jerome Isac Friedman nfO{ Quark kQf nufP jfkt gf]a]n k'/ :sf/n] ;Ddfg ul/of] . To;}u/L cfwf/e"t k/df0f'x¿sf] vf]h / cg';Gwfgsf] qmd hf/L /x]sf] 5 .

– /jLGb| l;+x dxt,
cd[t ;fOG; SofDk;df ef}lts zf:q k|fWofkg ug'{x'G5 .

kfj{tL s'08sf] cl:tTj vt/fdf

/;'jf lhNnfsf] uTnfªufpF ljsf; ;ldlt j8f g+= % l:yt kf}/fl0fs dxTjsf] kfj{tLs'08 plrt ;+/If0fsf] cefjdf k'l/g] cj:yfdf k'u]sf] 5 . ;d'b| ;txaf6 !) xhf/ lkm6sf] prfO{df /x]sf] kfj{tL s'08, lxGb' wfld{s u|Gyx¿df pNn]lvt !)* s'08x¿dWo] uf];fOFs'08 / ;"o{s'08 kl5sf] k|l;4 s'08 xf] . o; s'08df ljz]ifu/L hg} k"l0f{df, lzj/flq / afnf rt'b{zLsf lbg 7"nf] d]nf nfUg] ub{5 .

lsDabGtLcg';f/ kf}/fl0fs sfndf eujfg lzj–kfj{tLn] o; s'08df hnljxf/ u/]sf]n] o; s'08sf] gfd kfj{tL s'08 /xg uPsf] b]lvG5 .

sl/a rf/ ;o ld6/ If]qkmndf j[Qfsf/ ¿kdf /x]sf] o; s'08sf] plrt ;+/If0f gx'gfn] kxf8af6 df6f] au]/ cfO{ k'l/g] qmd hfl//x]sf] 5 eg] s'08df lgs} afSnf] ¿kaf6 ;txb]lv g} pld|Psf] …af]emf]Ú gfds h8La'6Lsf sf/0f s'08sf] ;tx aif]{lg k'l/b}+ uPsf] kfOG5 .

Toltdfq geO s'08sf] rf/}lt/ /x]sf ¿vx¿ s'08leq} 9n]sf]df klg gl´s]sf]n] s'08 xfn kmf]xf]/ ¿kdf /x]sf] 5 .

s'08sf] ;txsf] rf/}lt/ pld|Psf] h8La'6L af]´f]sf] dfu cGt/f{li6«o cf}iflw ahf/df lgs} /fd|f] /x]sf] eP klg o;sf] ;b'kof]u ug{ g;lsPsf] s'/f uTnfª uflj;sf cWoIf s[i0faxfb'/ tfdfª atfpF5g\ .

o; s'08df jl/kl/ /x]sf] ¿vx¿af6 kftx¿ ´g]{ lalQs} s'08df /x]sf kfgLxfF;x¿n] tL kftx¿ l´s]/ aflx/ ˆofFSg] cgf}7f] ljz]iftf /x]sf] s'/f :yfgLo JolQmx¿ atfpF5g\ . dxfb]j / kfj{tL;Fu ;DalGwt kj{x¿df d]nf nflu/xg] eP klg vf;} Tolt ef}lts ;'ljwfx¿ gePsf sf/0f tLyf{n' eQmhgx¿nfO{ 7"n} ;d:of kl//x]sf] atfOG5 .

s'08df 9n]sf ¿vx¿ ;kmf ug]{ / af]´f];lxtsf] h8La'6LnfO{ cf}iflw ahf/df laqmL ug]{ p2]Zon] ut jif{ lhlj; /;'jfn] sfo{qmd nu]sf], t/ :yfgLo JolQmx¿n] eujfg l/;fP/ dxfk|no x'g] atfO{ sfd x'g glbPsf] s'/f lhlj; ;efklt eLdnfn lx/frg atfpF5g\ .

kf}/fl0fs dxTjsf] k|l;4 kfj{tL s'08sf] ;dodf g} plrt ;/;kmfO{ / ;+/If0f gePdf kfFr÷;ft aif{leq} s'08sf] ;tx k'l/g] kSsfkSsL /xbf/x+b} klg :yfgLo jfl;Gbfx¿sf] wfld{s cGwf]kgsf sf/0f s'08sf] cl:tTj g} vt/fdf k/]sf] u'gf;f] lhlj; ;efklt lx/frg u5{g\ .

– lbg]z cfrfo{, g'jfsf]6

| cfj/0f kl/ro || k|ltqmLof || :jf:Yo || hfgsf/L || ;DkfbsLo || ;+:s[lt |
| e]63f6 || :fflxTo || s[lif || /fli6«o ultljlw || lrGtg || dgf]/~hg .. Oltxf; .
. 1fg–lj1fg .. k|frLg ;Dkbf .. kz'k+IfL || /ª\ud~r || z}lIfs hut || cGtl/If |
| k|ljlw || k|ltef || :yfg kl/ro || v]ns'b || ljrf/ || d'Qms÷n3'syf || hLjg bz{g |